David Berlo introduced the SMCR model of communication in 1960. Berlo’s communication is linear, although it touches on human communication. Berlo’s theory focuses on the components needed in each of the four element of communication (SMCR). Berlo was the first communication scholar who treated the five senses as channel of communication .
Berlo introduces 4 levels of communication in his theory: Source, Message, Channel & Receiver.
SOURCE (SUMBER)
Source is anyone, or any object (machine) which sends a message (verbal or nonverbal) to another person or to another object. Sumber merangkumi sesiapa sahaja, atau objek (mesin) yang menghantar mesej (secara lisan atau bukan lisan) kepada orang lain atau kepada objek lain.
The source of the message should have:
Communication Skills (kebolehan berkomunikasi)
Attitudes (pandangan ke atas mesej yang ingin disampaikan)
Knowledge (tahap pengetahuan mengenai mesej yang ingin disampaikan)
Socio-cultural system (sistem sosio budaya)
MESSAGE (MESEJ)
According to Berlo, message is comprised of:
Code (kode)
Content (Kandungan)
CODE – “a set of symbols used to translate a message from one form to another”
Devito, J.A. (2005) Messages: Building Interpersonal Communication Skills (278)
CHANNEL
Channel of Communication is comprised of: –
Hearing (pendengaran)
Smelling (Hidu) -Tasting (merasa)
Touching (sentuhan)
Seeing (penglihatan) Additional channel of communication (not discussed by Berlo):
Air waves (vibration of sound)
Copper wires
RECEIVER
Receiver of the message should have:
Communication Skills (kebolehan berkomunikasi)
Attitudes (pandangan ke atas mesej yang ingin disampaikan)
Knowledge (tahap pengetahuan mengenai mesej yang ingin disampaikan)
Wilbur Schramm introduced a theory on the process of human communication in 1951. He introduced the concept of ‘field of experience’ in human communication. Schramm theory indicates communication and feedback occurs simultaneously. This process is also known as transactional communication.
Transactional Communication vs. Linear and Interactive Communication
Linear (one-way communication) * no feedback
Interactive (two way communication) * delay feedback
Transactional (two way communication) * spontaneous feedback
Schramm Theory of Human Communication
Communication is a process which requires the sender to compose suitable symbols and signs (encoder) to be disseminated to the receiver who will then give meaning to the received message (decoding and interpreting) before sending another message back to the sender (feedback) and the process repeats itself.
The sender of the message constructs and conceptualises a message using signs and symbols (encoding)
The receiver receives the message either verbally or non-verbally (decoding)
The receiver then assign meaning to the message received (interpreting)
The receiver then becomes the sender by providing feedback to the message received
Encoder: “the process of translating a message into code” – proses menterjemahkan mesej kepada kode.
Interpreter: “an act of assigning meaning to a code or symbol” – proses memberi makna kepada kode atau simbol
Decoder: “the act of translating from code symbols into ordinary language” Cassell Popular English Dictionary (1995:813). Decoder can be done either manually or by means of technology (decoding machines)
According to Schramm, effective human communication occurs when:
1. The message is understood between sender and receiver
Message
“a message is any symbol or collection of symbols which has meaning or utility” – mesej adalah apa jua simbol atau koleksi simbol yang mempunyai makna atau yang boleh digunakan
Symbol
“a character or letter accepted as representing or signifying something, idea, relation, process etc” Cassell Popular English Dictionary (1995:832)
“a symbol is anything which is created to refer to something else” Gilchrist, J. (1990)
2. Communication Skills (sender and receiver)
choosing the right symbols to communicate
combination of verbal and non-verbal communication during interaction. example: ‘peace sign’ expressions of feelings
Encoder should focus on the frame of reference of the receiver example: communicating about extreme cold weather
3. Providing Feedback
feedback has to be immediate (preferably)
feedback is most effective if done face-to- face
feedback using media (internet, phone calls, letters etc) is less effective due to delay time factor
feedback should be genuine, honest and reliable
4. The level of knowledge of the sender/receiver regarding the message sent/received
knowledge about the topic
high level of knowledge of sender may have a high level of influence on the receiver
knowledge is consistent with the sender/receiver level of experience
knowledge is also the result of exposure to the environment
1. “The act of communicating; exchange of ideas, conveyance of information, etc”
(melakukan komunikasi; bertukar idea, menyampaikan informasi dll)
The New International Webster’s Comprehensive Dictionary of the English Language 1999:265
2. Exchange of Ideas “to give or receive in return for something else”
Cassell Popular English Dictionary (1995:281)
the amount of ideas exchanged signify communication
whether a person is knowledgeable or not
whether a person wants to communicate or otherwise
depending on the nature of the ideas
3. “Communication is the process of transmitting; a giving, or giving and receiving of information, signals, or messages by talks, gestures, writing, etc.”
(komunikasi adalah proses penyampaian; memberi dan menerima informasi, signal atau mesej melalui perbualan, perbuatan, penulisan dll)
Ruben, B. (1992) Communication and Human Behavior:1
4. “A system of sending and receiving messages, as by telephone, telegraph, radio, etc” (suatu sistem penyampaian dan penerimaan mesej (maklumat) melalui telefon, telegraf, radio dll)
Ruben, B. (1992) Communication and Human Behavior:1
5. “Human communication is the process through which individuals – in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies – respond to and create messages to relate to the environment and one another”
Komunikasi manusia adalah proses di mana individu – dalam perhubungan, kumpulan, organisasi dan masyarakat – bertindak ke atas dan membentuk mesej (maklumat) untuk disesuaikan dengan persekitaran dan di antara satu sama lain
Ruben, B. (1992) Communication and Human Behavior (14)
Image via: competition8921
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
1. Human Communication
intrapersonal communication
interpersonal communication
intercultural communication
2. Group Communication
small group communication (2 – 10 people)
large group communication (11-30 people)
mass group communication (more than 30, less than 200 people)
mass communication via media (millions of people)
3. Organizational Communication
employers/management to workers/staff
from workers/staff to employers/management
among peers/subordinates
communication via technology (email, phones etc)
4. Animal Communication
by means of sounds
by means of gestures
by means of reward for reinforcement
5. Machine Communication
from humans to machines (e.g., computers, fax machines, photocopies etc)
from machine to machine (robotics, CAD, CAM, industrial productions)
6. Mediated Communication
communication by means of media
includes electronic media (radio, TV) and print media (newspapers, magazines, books etc)
COMMUNICATION RELATED DISCIPLINES
1. Intrapersonal Communication
communication within oneself
disciplines among psychologists and scholars studying children communication – e.g., John E. Aitken, Leonard J. Shedletsky, Don W. Stacks etc etc.
2. Interpersonal Communication
communication with two or more individuals
conducted by means of media or face-to-face
understanding the complexity of human communication
3. Intercultural communication
study of human communication between people from different cultural backgrounds
focuses on the dynamics of verbal and non- verbal communication in the context of cross-culture
important for maintaining diplomatic, political and social relations between nations
4. Organizational communication
the study of human communication within an organizational setting
interaction between work colleagues (peers), top-down communication, bottom-up communication, communication via technology in the organization, communication across units/departments/ divisions
5. Mass communication
the study of communication via electronic media (radio, TV, film) and print media (newspapers, magazines, books etc)
focuses on the mass audience, audience characteristics, audience demography, means of disseminating information using the appropriate medium
also focuses on international communication using media (satellite, phone, video teleconferencing etc)
UNDERSTANDING COMMUNICATION THEORY
1. “communication theories are theories that contain explicit or implicit definition of communication. It contains variables that indicates relationships to explain communication phenomena”
(Narimah Ismail et al. (2007) KOM5111 Module
2. Understanding Communication Theory According to Littlejohn (2002), communication theory functions as a medium to explain and predict a communication phenomena”
(in Akmar Hayati, 2009:39)
3. Understanding Communication Theory “A set of concepts and relationships statements that helps to describe, explain, evaluate, predict and control communication events”
(Cragan & Shields, 1998)
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION THEORY
1. Concepts
abstraction referencing to a class of thing, a term used at the theoretical level (Salleh Hassan, 2008)
the process by which a general idea is derived or an abstraction is generalized is called conceptualization (Salleh Hassan, 2008)
2. Variables
variables are phenomenon which are liable to change; capable of varying; susceptible of continuous change of value (Cassell Popular English Dictionary, 1995:912)
A variable is a concept, object, or property to which a set of values based on predetermined criteria is assigned.
two forms of variables in Communication Studies: Independent Variable and Dependent Variable
Dependent Variable
variables which are assumed to depend on or be caused by another (called the independent variable)
For example, if you find that income is partly a function of amount of or level of formal education, income is being treated as a dependent variable (Salleh Hassan, 2008)
Independent Variable
An independent variable is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable.
For example, if we discover that religiosity is partly a function of gender – that is to say women are more religious than men, therefore gender is the independent variable (Salleh Hassan, 2008)
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION THEORY
Making predictions/assumptions about communication phenomenon
Provides an assumption about a communication phenomenon (Salleh, 2005)
communication types,what is communication skills,what is communication in english,importance of communication,what is communication process,what is communication pdf,verbal communication,communication definition by different authors,
